Fernando A. Navarro

In 2000, the last year of the 20^th century, a book came hot off the press (yes, at that time most dictionaries were still made of paper), the Dictionary of Doubts and Difficulties in English-Spanish Medical Translation, and it quickly became the top terminological book for medical translators working into Spanish. Five years later in 2005, the second edition of the dictionary came out in a revised, improved and much expanded version, now with a pan-Hispanic perspective, but still in hard copy only.

I had to wait for eight more years–and within that time for none other than the ground-breaking Dictionary of Medical Terms (2011) from the Royal Academy of Medicine in Spain–to produce the Libro rojo and take the leap from paper to cyberspace. The third edition of the dictionary, and first on the Cosnautas website, had a new name: Dictionary of Doubts and Difficulties in English-Spanish Medical Translation (2013), now only in electronic version for online research.

Since then, I have updated the work every six months, and thus over these nine years, 18 updates have marked the progressive improvement and expansion of the Libro rojo. But only now, with the deadly Covid-19 pandemic about to pass into history, have I decided to publish, at last, a fourth edition of the dictionary. The newly revised Dictionary of Doubts and Difficulties in English-Spanish Medical Translation (2022) will provide the basis and the model for a version in Portuguese already being prepared by the Brazilian doctor and translator Carla Vorsatz, and we hope to release it on the Cosnautas platform in its preliminary version this year.

The internal structure of the work has hardly changed in all this time. The lexicographical structure of the dictionary continues to be essentially identical to that of the first edition in hard copy, which as I mentioned above was originally published in 2000. There is also no substantial change with respect to the Cosnautas edition from 2013 mentioned in the prologue to the third edition.

 So, what has changed since the third edition of the dictionary (version 3.01, July 2013) in this new fourth edition (version 4.01, March 2022)?

Mainly, it is the magnitude of the work. Libro rojo has gone from 47,344 terms in version 3.01 to 60,757 entries in version 4.01. In other words, almost 13,500 new entries corresponding to neologisms, technisms and expressions that are misleading or difficult to translate from nearly every biomedical field and other areas of knowledge. History rolls on, with medical breakthroughs taking place non-stop: the continuous discovery of new monoclonal antibodies, Obama's healthcare reform, the publication of the 23rd edition (2014) of the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy and its 23.1 (December 2017), 23.2 (December 2018), 23.3 (November 2019), 23.4 (November 2020), and 23.5 (December 2021) updates, robotic surgery and telemedicine, new chemical elements approved by IUPAC in 2016, the revolutionary CRISPR technique and Brexit for those of us in Spain in January 2020, the first coronaviruses, the Zika virus, the pandemic of Covid-19 and the new ARNm vaccines–all these things have left their mark on the Libro rojo. For those who are curious to know the type of terms that were added to the dictionary and when exactly, you will see in table 1 a list of 600 new entries in the Libro rojo between January 2015 and March 2022. It is only a small selection of the 13,000 new entries in the fourth edition, but it may help to show the overall vision of the work.

Have you ever wondered how new terms get into the Libro rojo? Where did the 13,000 new entries of the fourth edition come from? Many of them arose from my own doubts. I have been working in medical translation for 35 years, and I rarely spend a day without translating or reading a medical text in English. It is also quite rare for me to spend a day without encountering some uncertainty or difficulty in translation, and when it happens, I always try–regardless of my deadline–to find the time to document it and add it to the Libro rojo. I am now an expert in uncertainties and difficulties in translation, though this is not to say I am an expert in resolving them! I am only an expert in having doubts.

As with the second and third editions of my dictionary, I also continue to collect knowledge from out in cyberspace where my fellow translator colleagues go with their queries: the MedTrad and Tremédica discussion threads, of course, but also–for this fourth edition–the main social media channels (Facebook, LinkedIn and, above all, Twitter).

Apart from this, I would like to highlight two other abundant resources that my dictionary, and mine alone, benefits from. They are two places of query that would have delighted the lexicographers of previous generations. Ever since the Libro rojo was published in Cosnautas, the interactive and collaborative model of Cos has allowed me to tap into the enquiring minds of the cosnauts themselves on a daily basis. In the nine years in which the third, now extinct, edition of Libro rojo (versions 3.01 to 3.18, July 2013 to February 2022) was active, more than 300 cosnauts contributed on several occasions with ideas for improvement: some who wrote me simply to correct a small errata (always an important task, to rid the text of "rats"); others, essentially, who wrote to propose an interesting new entry I probably would not have encountered on my own.  In table 2 you will see a hundred additions that reached me this way with the name of the cosnaut who threw me down the lexicographical gauntlet. There were several hundred more just like them.

Even more wonderful still, though unforeseen, was another resource that I only discovered once my dictionary appeared on Cos. All users of Cosnautas, merely by consulting the Libro rojo, were already actively collaborating in the process of revision and improvement of the work. I was able to know, with just a few clicks, the most consulted entries in the dictionary, but also–and even more interestingly–which unsuccessful searches were most frequent. If many medical translation professionals are all looking for a term that does not appear in a dictionary of doubts like mine, it must be a recurring problem that perhaps would have to be addressed in the Libro rojo, though it had not been apparent it to me. A meticulous review of the list of unsuccessful searches in each version of the dictionary allowed me to open up the work to a multitude of interesting terms that until then had been ignored, including blueprint, drusen, fibroscan, MedDRA, narrative, ookinete, orthotist and VEGF. Hundreds of the most frequent searches typed in by cosnauts that had once come up empty now show results in this fourth edition.  Table 3 shows more than 300, but in fact there were many more. Among them, there are terms that at a certain point became trendy; during the 2020-2022 pandemic, for example, many of us spent the two years translating texts on epidemiology, the coronavirus, preventative measures, covid vaccines and new antiviral medications. The Libro rojo was enriched by the questions that emerged in my translations and reading, and with others that arose during the compilation of the English-Spanish Covid-19 Glossary  for Cosnautas and Tremédica. But until I reviewed the list of unsuccessful searches from version 3.15 (1 March to 31 August 2020) I did not realize that I had ignored queries as common as CPAP, ECMO, facemask, lockdown, paucisymptomatic, PPE and sanitisation. In this last case, by the way, the Libro rojo actually contained the entry to sanitise, but hundreds of cosnauts did not arrive at it when typing in sanitisation. Many of the queries that produce unsuccessful searches were in fact are due to simple variants (such is the case, for example, in words like hayfever, lightheaded, stenting and tophi, which were unfruitful even though they were listed in the dictionary as hay fever, lightheadedness, stent and tophus), or even frequent errata or incorrect variants (in the dictionary we had balloon and proprietary, but hundreds of cosnauts did not find them when typing ballon or baloon in the first case, and propietary in the second). Unbeknownst to the cosnauts making these failed searches, all their actions were extremely useful to me in improving my work.

The combination of electronic lexicography with the participative model of Cosnautas has been key to achieving both the quantitative and qualitative jump between the third and fourth editions of the Libro rojo. It is thus closer than ever to reaching its goal of becoming the best bilingual dictionary in history.

Fernando A. Navarro

Fernando A. Navarro

There is no doubt that in the world of general and specialised dictionaries, translators are spoilt for choice. Considering the sheer number of monolingual, bilingual and multilingual dictionaries, I am sure that many readers will be surprised and somewhat sceptical about the publication of this Diccionario crítico de dudas inglés-español de medicina^†:

“What? Not another dictionary! And what a weird title!“

In the course of this introduction, I hope to convince you that a dictionary of this nature is not only necessary - I can almost hear the critics saying “it fills a gap in the bibliography” - but also that it simply has to have this title. However strange and exotic it initially sounds, the title is certainly not the result of a rash decision or fleeting fancy. Let us dissect the title, word by word.

 * This Introduction is a literal copy of the original version published in the first edition, with some very minor changes to adapt to the new typography and format of the third edition.

^† This was the title for the first two editions (Madrid: McGraw·Hill-Interamericana, 2000 and 2005); for this electronic Cosnautas edition (2013), I decided to rename it Diccionario de dudas y dificultades de traducción del inglés médico, which is the title I will use from now on in this introduction.

In Spanish, unlike in English, grammatical gender is a vital syntactic function that expresses agreement among nouns, adjectives, some pronouns, articles and certain participles used as adjectives. Grammatical gender poses major challenges for lexicographers, particularly with regard to nouns that name persons.

      In a bilingual dictionary, it is fairly easy to denote the grammatical gender of inanimate nouns, since most objects have a single form and explicit gender: biopsia, for example, is always feminine; quirófano is always masculine. In a bilingual dictionary, it is therefore easy to state that "biopsy is biopsia" and "operation room is quirófano".

      However, in the case of nouns that name persons, most have a double gender form in Spanish (e.g., el cardiólogo and la cardióloga, el bioquímico and la bioquímica) or they are invariant with an implicit gender (e.g., el dentista and la dentista, el psiquiatra and la psiquiatra). Very few nouns that are invariant with explicit gender can be used for both biological sexes without changing the grammatical gender. This is true of masculine (e.g., bebé, cadáver, personaje, ser) and feminine nouns alike (e.g., criatura, familia, gente, persona, víctima).

      Nouns naming persons that undergo gender-related changes are a major problem for bilingual dictionaries. Some dictionaries opt to use an inclusive masculine form. This strategy is very common in general spoken language when referring to a person whose sex is not yet known (e.g., "espero que en este hospital haya un ginecólogo de guardia"). These dictionaries state, for example, that "neurologist is neurólogo", running the risk that their strategy may be misinterpreted as gender bias against women. Other dictionaries, on the other hand, prefer to expand the double forms and state that "neurologist is neurólogo o neuróloga" or they opt for a double abbreviated form, "neurologist is neurólogo/-ga".

      These two alternatives for solving Spanish gender variance work quite well in monolingual dictionaries (where they are used as isolated headwords) and in simple bilingual dictionaries (where direct equivalents are usually given in the form of one- or two-word entries). However, in complex bilingual dictionaries that provide a range of compound expressions, these strategies become cumbersome and confusing. For example, a good surgeon becomes un buen cirujano, una buena cirujana (not to mention un/a buen/a cirujano/­na!). Even more long-winded and convoluted are explanatory sentences with nouns, adjectives and articles that all express gender agreement. A sentence such as "Además del médico adjunto y el auxiliar administrativo, solamente pueden estar presentes el paciente ingresado y un amigo íntimo o un familiar cercano" should reflect all its variants: "Además de la médica adjunta y el auxiliar administrativo, solamente pueden estar presentes la paciente ingresada y un amigo íntimo o una familiar cercana", "Además del médico adjunto y la auxiliar administrativa, solamente pueden estar presentes el paciente ingresado y una amiga íntima o un familiar cercano", "Además de la médica adjunta y la auxiliar administrativa, solamente pueden estar presentes la paciente ingresada y un amigo o amiga íntimos o una familiar cercana" and scores of other possibilities that the Spanish language contemplates. Instead of increasing the reader's understanding, these strategies actually further confuse the issue. Worse still would be a double expanded option ("Además del médico adjunto o la médica adjunta y el auxiliar administrativo o la auxiliar administrativa, solamente pueden estar presentes el paciente ingresado o la paciente ingresada y un amigo íntimo o una amiga íntima o un familiar cercano o una familiar cercana") or a double abbreviated option ("Además del/de la médico/­ca adjunto/­ta y el/la auxiliar administrativo/-va, solamente pueden estar presentes el/la paciente ingresado/-da y un/a amigo/-ga íntimo/-ma o un/a familiar cercano/-na").

      The options for nouns that name persons also apply to all English adjectives for persons and things, but with an even greater degree of complexity. This is because adjectives have gender and number in Spanish, but not in English. An adjective such as white, for example, would be blanca in white skirt (falda blanca), but blancos in white trousers (pantalones blancos). So, in an exhaustive bilingual dictionary, it would no longer suffice to say that white means blanco, as is usually the case, but white means blanco, blanca, blancos or blancas or, in the abbreviated form, white means blanco(s)/-ca(s). Again, this is extremely cumbersome and confusing, which is just what a dictionary seeks to avoid.

      Therefore, the time-old practice in the history of lexicography is to tend towards simplicity and clarity over exhaustiveness. Everyone who regularly uses a monolingual dictionary will know, for example, that bisturíes has to be searched for as bisturí, because it does not have its own entry. Likewise, soy, eras, fue, seremos and serían have to be searched for as ser; librito as libro; dificilísimo as difícil, and so on and so forth.

      I have never heard anyone suggest that searching for different verb forms using the infinitive shows bias against past, present, future or imperative conjugations. And no one contends that finding Spanish plurals only by searching for singulars implies a number bias that might empower the individualistic nature of our modern capitalist society against the plurality and sense of community that is defended by the social revolution of Christianity or anarchy. Everyone readily understands that these are mere conventions of usage, designed to simplify dictionary searches, with an eminently practical purpose. So it should not be hard to interpret grammatical gender conventions the same way, as simple grammatical conventions designed for practicality.

      In the Dictionary of doubts and difficulties in English medical translation, I have sought to avoid the long-windedness of expanding each and every Spanish grammatical gender variant of an English term or phrase. I have therefore opted to apply the following conventions:

1. For headwords and compound expressions (denoted by the symbol ●), and in the main body of the articles, I have given the Spanish equivalent in an inclusive or generic single gender form. In line with general Spanish usage, the inclusive gender is usually masculine, except for a few cases in which the inclusive feminine form is used in general speech to represent both grammatical genders. Therefore, the equivalent terms rheumatologist (reumatólogo) and obstetric nurse (comadrona), should be interpreted in the standard, underlying sense of rheumatologist (reumatólogo or reumatóloga, depending on the context) and obstetric nurse (comadrona or comadrón, depending on the context), respectively.

2. In the case of example sentences (denoted by the symbol ◘), however, I have used the inclusive masculine form only (or, more rarely, the inclusive feminine form) when the example refers to a group of men and women or a person of indeterminate or unknown sex. In all other cases, I have tried to alternate examples in which an English noun has a standard, underlying Spanish masculine equivalent with others that have a feminine one, so that the reader is constantly aware that the transformation from English to Spanish involves an inherent grammatical gender decision. Therefore, with words such as child and doctor, the reader will encounter example sentences such as My child is badly injured (mi hijo está gravemente herido) and The doctor ordered complete rest (la médica le prescribió reposo absoluto) together with other examples such as She was often ill as a child (de pequeña se ponía enferma con frecuencia) and The doctor put the patient out for surgery (el médico anestesió a la paciente para la intervención quirúrgica).

      Notwithstanding the above, for some entries where I feel it would be useful for the reader to have access to more detailed comments, I have discussed specific problems encountered when translating English - a language with almost no traces of grammatical gender - to Spanish, where this feature is ever present. Take, for example, the first comments on usage (denoted by the symbol ►►) in the entry for Dr. or the comment on meaning usage (denoted by the symbol ►) in meaning one, sub-meaning a), in the entry for nurse.

To Lydia, Antonio, Álvaro, Isabel and Miguel.

Many of the hours that I spent compiling this dictionary

- and I can assure you there were many indeed - were in fact theirs.

Many friends and translators have sent in suggestions and comments to improve the dictionary, and have helped solve terminology doubts in person, by phone, post and e-mail. In this respect, the following colleagues have made the biggest or most assiduous contributions to this third edition of my dictionary of doubts: José Rafael Blengio Pinto (Querétaro), Guido Castañeda Macchiavello (Barcelona), M. Gonzalo Claros Díaz (Malaga), Fernando Contreras Blanco (Madrid), Xavier Fuentes Arderiu (Barcelona), Betty Galiano (Rosario), Carlos Gancedo (Madrid), Isabel García Acha (Salamanca), Carlos Garrido (Vigo), Javier Hellín (Madrid), Antonio Hernández Rolón (Mexico), José María Izquierdo (Cordova), Pablo Mugüerza (Valladolid), Laura Munoa (Madrid), Ignacio Navascués(Madrid), Emilia Picazo (Mexico), Rafael Rivera (Miami), Julio Rodríguez-Villanueva García (Soto del Real), Gustavo A. Silva (Washington and Geneva), Sandro Tomasi (New York), Manuel Talens (Valencia), Damián Vázquez (Buenos Aires and Washington) and Elisa Vilaret (Barcelona), as well as, in particular, Guillermo Murillo Godínez (Querétaro) and, especially, Juan Manuel Martín Arias (Madrid)[*].

My colleagues, numbering almost three hundred, on the mailing list servers MedTrad <www.rediris.es/list/info/medtrad.html> (since September 1999) and Tremédica <tremedica.org> (since February 2008) have been extremely helpful. This treasure trove - over one hundred thousand archived messages of which I am proud to say I have read each and every one - has been without doubt my most valuable source of information over these long years of work, fine tuning this third edition of the dictionary of doubts. In fact, in my opinion, the MedTrad and Tremédica lists have been so valuable that they should be acknowledged as the collective co-authors of this reference work. I exaggerate not.

Since launching the third edition of the Libro rojo on Cosnautas, I have received proposals for additions and corrections from many colleagues. Their suggestions have greatly improved this version, 4.01, and I would like to publicly thank the following cosnauts for their contributions:

Version 4.05  Mónica Adler, Ana Atienza, Lida Barbetti Vros, Francisco Bautista Becerro, Claudia Bayá Crapuchett, Yvonne Becker, Laura Bocco, Marina Borrás Ferrá, Liliana Bryant, Natalia Caicedo, Ayla Carazo, Iria Carballo, Constanza Cervino, M. Gonzalo Claros, Noemí Contartese, Fernando Contreras Blanco, José Antonio de la Riva Fort, María de la Rubia Gómez-Morán, Silvia Escobar, Jorge Esteban Casas, Marta Fernández Seoane, Luisa Fernández Sierra, Nur Ferrante Morales, Mary Fons i Fleming, Betty Galiano, Sara Galindo Álvarez, Ana Elisa Gil Vodermayer, William Giller, Paz Gómez Polledo, Myra Guzmán-Teare, María J. Hernández Weigand, José A. Huarancca Sánchez, Mar Jiménez Quesada, Vanesa Jorge Sostoa, María Kurtz, Núria Llorens, Juan Diego López García, Ileana Luque, Valentina Luridiana, Javier Mallo Martínez, Elisa Manzanal, Eva Martínez Fornos, Álvaro Medina Muñoz, Miriam M. Mora Mau, Pablo Mugüerza, María José Nägler, Julieta Olivero, José Sergio Pajares Nievas, Anthony Palomo, Blanca Paniagua Marco, Emilia Picazo Guadarrama, M.ª Fernanda Pignataro, María Pineda, Patricia Posadas Suquía, Fernando Presumido, Héctor Quiñones Tapia, Daniela Ramírez, Antonio M. Regueiro, María Requena Castañol, Cristina Río López, Mar Rodríguez Vázquez, Rodrigo Rosales Sosa, Manuel Rubio Máñez, M.ª Verónica Saladrigas, Giselle Saldaña, Antonio Sanguino Yturriaga, Gemma Sanza Porcar, María Victoria Sormani, Karol Tapia de Moya, Andrea Valero Mathieu, Javier Wasserzug.

Versión 4.04  Mónica Adler, Ana Atienza, Maite Babío Galán, Lida Barbetti Vros, Claudia Bayá Crapuchett, Natalia Caicedo, Susana Campos, Constanza Cervino, M. Gonzalo Claros, Rossella Cordone, José Antonio de la Riva Fort, María de la Rubia Gómez-Morán, Verónica Escobar, Jorge Esteban Casas, Mary Fons i Fleming, Pedro Juan Galán Martín, Betty Galiano, Sara Galindo Álvarez, Lorenzo Gallego Borghini, Mercedes García-Briones Teglia, Emma Goldsmith, Rocío Gómez Zamora, María J. Hernández Weigand, Diego Ibáñez Rivera, Celina Iñones, Mar Jiménez Quesada, Becky Katz, Germán Londoño, Valentina Luridiana, Monica Madel, Elisa Manzanal, Antoni C. Maroto, Valentina Marta Rodríguez, María Laura Mazza, Álvaro Medina Muñoz, Eva Molina-De Vilbiss, José María Montero Vázquez, Miriam M. Mora Mau, Pablo Mugüerza, Laura Munoa, Alfonso Nevado Caballero, José Sergio Pajares Nievas, Anthony Palomo, Andrés Paredes Jiménez, Emilia Picazo Guadarrama, M.ª Fernanda Pignataro, Fernando Presumido, Héctor Quiñones Tapia, Antonio M. Regueiro, María Requena Castañol, Gloria M. Rivera, Mar Rodríguez Vázquez, Rodrigo Rosales Sosa, María Victoria Sormani, Paula Steiner, Javier Wasserzug.

Version 4.03  Sarah Jane Aberasturi, Mónica Adler, Namaa Audi Alamiry, Lida Barbetti Vros, Yvonne Becker, Míriam Bernal Montoro, José Bocic, Marina Borrás Ferrá, Laura Carasusán, Guido Castañeda Macchiavello, Fernando Contreras Blanco, Rossella Cordone, Agustina Cossia Colagioia, José Antonio de la Riva Fort, María de la Rubia Gómez-Morán, Antonio Díez Herranz, Silvia Escobar, Ivo Estorello, Jesica Flores, Mary Fons i Fleming, Pedro Juan Galán Martín, Betty Galiano, Lorenzo Gallego Borghini, Víctor M. García Nieto, Mercedes García-Briones Teglia, William Giller, Paz Gómez Polledo, Rocío Gómez Zamora, Daniel González Suárez, Antonio Hernández Rolón, María J. Hernández Weigand, Juan Manuel Igea, Mar Jiménez Quesada, Germán Londoño, Valentina Luridiana, Monica Madel, Javier Mallo Martínez, Alicia Martorell, María Laura Mazza, Pablo Mugüerza, Laura Munoa, Alfonso Nevado Caballero, Mercedes Pacheco Ruiz, Andrea Padrón Villalba, Anthony Palomo, Emilia Picazo Guadarrama, M.ª Fernanda Pignataro, Héctor Quiñones Tapia, Antonio M. Regueiro, Cristina Río López, Gloria M. Rivera, Mar Rodríguez Vázquez, Victoria Romero Moreno, Rodrigo Rosales Sosa, Fabián Salinas, María Victoria Sormani, Paula Steiner, María Taibo, Sheila Vázquez Ledo, Carla Vorsatz, Javier Wasserzug, Carolina Zabala.

Version 4.02  Meritxell Almarza Bosch, Lida Barbetti Vros, Claudia Bayá Crapuchett, Luis Ángel Becerra Andrade, Míriam Bernal Montoro, Marina Borrás Ferrá, David Bravo Blanco, Fernando Campos Leza, Federico Carroli, Guido Castañeda Macchiavello, Constanza Cervino, Edurne Chopeitia, M. Gonzalo Claros, Fernando Contreras Blanco, Rossella Cordone, Agustina Cossia Golagioia, José Antonio de la Riva Fort, Alejandra Durán Paiz, Fiorella Farfán, Mary Fons i Fleming, Pedro Juan Galán Martín, Betty Galiano, Sara Galindo Álvarez, Lorenzo Gallego Borghini, Luis A. García Nevares, Pilar García Valdecasas, William Giller, Paz Gómez Polledo, Rocío Gómez Zamora, María J. Hernández Weigand, Daniel Hinostroza, José A. Huarancca Sánchez, Juan Manuel Igea, Valentina Luridiana, W. Christopher Marquardt, Blanca Leticia Merlin Jarquin, Eva Molina-De Vilbiss, Pablo Mones, José María Montero Vázquez, Pablo Mugüerza, Jaume Mullol García, Alfonso Nevado Caballero, Anthony Palomo, Marisa Parzenczewski, Emilia Picazo Guadarrama, Héctor Quiñones Tapia, Antonio M. Regueiro, Cristina Río López, Gloria M. Rivera, Mar Rodríguez Vázquez, Virginia Rubio, M.ª Verónica Saladrigas, Antonio Sanguino Yturriaga, María Victoria Sormani, María Taibo, Karol Tapia de Moya, Eñaut Urrestarazu Aizpurua, Carla Vorsatz.

Fourth Edition (versions 3.02-4.01)  Carmen Acuña Condal, Mónica Adler, Teresa Aguilar Sánchez, Carmen Albaladejo, Ricardo F. Alcolado, Eduardo Alegría Ezquerra, Marta Altimira Cabré, M.ª del Prado Antolino, Alberto Arango, Manuel Arca Castro, Elena Arranz Molinero, Efraín Arredondo, María Rosa Artigot Cánovas, Gonzalo Astorga, Ana Atienza Díaz, Namaa Audi Alamiry, Elena Avanzas, Sabela Avión Martínez, Maria Baker, Jordi Balcells Antón, Magdalena Balibrea Vich, Lida Barbetti Vros, Carmen Barcos Montes, Coral Barrachina i González, María Barros Ochoa, Eduardo Barroso de Fuenmayor, Francisco Bautista Becerro, Yvonne Becker, Rosa Bendezu Allen, Míriam Bernal Montoro, Heidy Blanco, Esperanza Blog-Case, José Bocic, Marina Borrás Ferrá, Wyman Borts, Belén Bravo Pardo, Mateo Burgos Corral, Ana Cabezas, Isabel Calderón, Olga Miriam Calderón, Francisco Calderón Pérez, Nancy Calvo Peralta, Fernando Campos Leza, Norma Candia, Silvina Candia, Esther Cangas, Omar Jesús Cañones Romero, Gerard Carot Sans, Julia Carrasco Navarro, Julia Carrioli, Guido Castañeda Macchiavello, Rodrigo Castillo Huerta, María Jesús Castresana, Marta Cervera Areny, Constanza Cervino Rossel, Mario Chávez, Nicolás Chiostri, Edurne Chopeitia, María Luisa Clark, M. Gonzalo Claros, Jesús Clemente Llanos, Laura C. Collada Ali, Jorge Colomo Grech, Assumpta Company Serrat, Noemí Victoria Contartese, Fernando Contreras Blanco, Felipe Contreras San Francisco, Rossella Cordone, Francisco Cortés Gabaudan, Diego Costa, Rossana Couto Lago, María C. Covella, Lorena Cruces, Raquel Cuesta Cuchillo, María R. de Cunzolo, José Antonio de la Riva Fort, Mercedes de la Rosa Sherman, María de la Rubia Gómez-Morán, Mónica de León, Pedro del Río, Antonella Dolce, Laura Domínguez Barroso, Rosa María Domínguez Borad, Santiago Dotor Carvajal, Ana Durán, Alejandra Durán Paiz, Silvia Escobar, Laura Espondaburu, Gloria Estevan Alcaide, Cristina Estrada Velo, Florencia Fernández, Esther Fernández Berjón, Luisa Fernández Sierra, Nur Ferrante, María Claudia Filgueira, Josefina Flores, Agustina Foglia, Mary Fons i Fleming, Carme Franch Ribes, Betty Galiano, Sara Galindo Álvarez, Lorenzo Gallego Borghini, Carlos Gancedo Sempere, Anna García, Leticia García, Esperanza García Guijarro, Jonatan García Muñoz, Alejandra J. García Romero, Mercedes García-Briones Teglia, Gustavo Garrido Poruchnik, Gabriela Gasparini, Ricardo Gayá Moreno, Walter Giacomelli, Laura Gil, William Giller, Jesús M. Giménez, Darío Giménez Imirizaldu, Dadiana Giraldo, Roni Glaser, Emma Goldsmith, Alba Gómez Hierro, Paz Gómez Polledo, Rocío Gómez Zamora, Alejandro González, Cecilia Andrea González, Fernando González, Luis González, Mariana González-Castellón Gutiérrez, Marina González González, Ana González Corcho, Alejandro González García-Cano, María González Nogal, Juan González Pérez, Daniel González Suárez, Luis Fernando González Trujillo, Sara Greenlee, Daniela Guanipa, Mariana Guiadanes Figueiras, Ana Guinea Martín, Paola Guntin, Celia Gutiérrez, Cristina Gutiérrez Viloria, Gina Hardinge, Gerardo Hernández, Antonio Hernández Rolón, María J. Hernández Weigand, Andrea Herrera Jiménez, Anabel Herrero Grazzina, Daniel Hinostroza, José A. Huarancca Sánchez, Aurora Humarán, Carmen Hurtado González, Juan Carlos Hurtado Negreiros, Soledad Iacobucci, Diego Ibáñez Rivera, Rosa Iglesias, Miriam Iglesias Raffay, Lily Irizarry, José María Izquierdo Tapia, Nelson Jaimes, Mar Jiménez Quesada, Lilian Jiménez-Ramsey, Sydney Kaiserman, Becky Katz, Virginia Koolhaas, Nélida Kreer, Isabel Lansberry, Daniel Lázaro Matías, Vicky Linares Casas, Patricia Lluberas, Germán Londoño, Marcelo López, Yolanda López Aguirre, Juan Diego López García, Almudena López Ramos, Javier Lorenzo, M.ª Fernanda Lozano, Melina Lozano Zumaeta, María Luján Rubio, Rafael Luna Méndez, Valentina Luridiana, María Mallén, Javier Mallo Martínez, Sandra Malo Jarque, Marisol Mandarino, Elisa Manzanal, Marta Manzanares, Antoni C. Maroto, W. Christopher Marquardt, Cristina Márquez Arroyo, Juan Manuel Martín Arias, Marta Martín Delmo, Nadia Martín Sánchez, Alejandra Martínez, Ariel Martínez, Begoña Martínez, Eva Martínez Fornos, Anna Martínez Lliso, Manuel Martínez Padrón, Pepito Mas, Sara Medina, Mónica Meinecke, Inma Mendoza García, Alejandra Meroño Burgos, Gabriela Milan, Alberto Millán Pérez de Madrid, Carolina Millet, Teresa Miret Mestre, Eva Molina Alba, Eva Molina-De Vilbiss, José María Montero Vázquez, Miriam M. Mora Mau, Juan José Moreiras, Natalia Moreno, Aníbal J. Morillo Zárate, M.ª Teresa Moro Solanes, Rafael Moyano Rojas, Pablo Mugüerza, Laura Munoa, Guillermo Murillo Godínez, Olga Lucía Mutis, Álvaro Navarro R.-Villanueva, Miguel Navarro R.‑Villanueva, Alfonso Nevado Caballero, Paola Núñez Acevedo, Clarisa Laura Olives, Guillermo Ordaz, Yolanda Otero Alonso, Mercedes Pacheco Ruiz, Severina Pagliara, José Sergio Pajares Nievas, Katherine Pajuelo Lara, Julián Palomino Nicás, Anthony Palomo, Nélida Paniagua Becerra, Marisa Parzenczewski, Mónica Parcet, Alejandro Partida, Gabriela Penrod, Xavier Peña, Elizabeth Pérez Diner, Natalia Pérez Ramos, Mónica Pérez Ruiz, Carmen Peris, Emilia Picazo Guadarrama, Vanina Picchio, M.ª Fernanda Pignataro, Guillermo Pinilla Gallego, Laura Pittinari-Miyazono, Salomé Planas, Toni Planas, Ana Pleite Moreno, Héctor Quiñones Tapia, Laura Ramos, Luciana Ramos, David Ramsay, Antonio M. Regueiro, Virginia Renalias Esteve, Cristina Río López, Gloria M. Rivera, Silvia Rizzuti, Malena Robles, Armando A. Robles Hmilowicz, José Felipe Rodríguez, Maribel Rodríguez, Samuel Rodríguez Medina, Tenesor Rodríguez Perdomo, Mar Rodríguez Vázquez, Carolina Rojas, Ismael Roldán, Tere Roldán, Anna Romero, José L. Rosado Santiago, Rodrigo Rosales Sosa, Virginia Rubio, Manuel Rubio Máñez, Diana Rudametkin, Manuel Saavedra López, Carlos Sabena, Elkin Saboyá, Rubén Sáez Carrasco, Emily Safrin, M.ª Verónica Saladrigas, Giselle Saldaña, Pablo Salvador López, Flavia Sampaoli, Pilar Sánchez Pareja, Marina Sánchez-Ocaña García, Antonio Sanguino Yturriaga, Gemma Sanza Porcar, José María Sastre Breva, Estefanía Serra, Lorenzo Serrahima Formosa, Marga Serrano, Gustavo A. Silva, Sonia Sleep, María Victoria Sormani, Claudia Soronellas-Brown, Gloria Straub, Ioana L. Supa, Scheherezade Surià, Florencia Svatetz, Karina Tabacinic, Karol Tapia de Moya, María I. Teijido Bullón, Jesse Thompson, Anabella Tidona, Daniela Toledo, Patricia Torres, Marcela Torres Suárez, Grecia Tosini, Agostina Traficante, Néstor E. Trejo Moret, Andreína Trujillo González, Miguel Turrión, Arantxa Ubieta Rubio, Elizabeth Valle, Carmen Valledor, Tamara Varela Vila, Yolanda Vercher López, Héctor Vianna Collazo, Fernando Vidal Carballido, Esperanza Vinagre Adán, Mariano Vitetta, Patricia Vitri Vives, Carla Vorsatz, Javier Wasserzug, Gertrud Weber, Carole Wolfe, José Ramón Zárate, Breogán Zazpe Tejedor, José Ignacio Zomeño Gutiérrez.

[*]     Without neglecting those who were so generous with their help in the first two editions: Enrique Alcaraz Varó [†] (Alicante), José María Álvarez Blanco (Madrid), Cristina Andrade (Madrid), José Rafael Blengio Pinto (Querétaro), M.ª del Pilar Calbet Rebollo (Barcelona), M.ª Jesús del Sol Jaquotot (Madrid), María Claudia Filgueira (Paris), Xavier Fuentes Arderiu (Barcelona), Betty Galiano (Rosario), Pilar García Menéndez (Madrid), Valentín García Yebra [†] (Madrid), Carlos Garrido (Vigo), Paz Gómez Polledo (Madrid), Luis González (Brussels), Francisco Hernández (Basel), Martin Kuhn (Freiburg im Breisgau), Juan Manuel Martín Arias (Madrid), Ernesto Martín-Jacod (Buenos Aires), Juan Antonio Navarro González (Badajoz), Ignacio Navascués (Madrid), Luis Pestana (Washington and Geneva), Emilia Picazo (Mexico), Héctor J. Quiñones (Madrid), Federico Romero [†] (Madrid), M.ª Verónica Saladrigas (Basel), Joaquín Segura (New York), David Shea (Las Palmas), Gustavo A. Silva (Washington), Pepe Tapia (New York and Ann Arbor), Elisa Vilaret (Barcelona) and Mariano Zomeño (Madrid).

I also implemented suggestions made by doctors, translators and terminologists in their reviews of this dictionary in Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas (Madrid), Apuntes (New York), Excélsior (Mexico), Hexagon (Basel), Lebende Sprachen (Berlin), Medicina (Buenos Aires), Medicina Clínica (Barcelona), Médico Interamericano (New York), Panace@ (Madrid), Puntoycoma (Brussels), Quark: Ciencia, Medicina, Comunicación y Cultura (Barcelona), Revista Española de Cardiología (Madrid), Revista Española de Enfermedades Metabólicas Óseas (Madrid), Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública (Washington), Terminologie & Traduction (Brussels), Terminology (Amsterdam), Trans: Revista de Traductología (Malaga).